Iran: Foreign Interference and Resistance

June 23, 2025

It could be said that the Qajar dynasty merely presided over Iran, while it was actually ruled more by tribal power, religious authorities, and foreign pressure.

Iran was still a pre-modern society, and did not have an effective government. It had a weak national economy and minimal infrastructure. Most people lived in rural villages or tribal communities, working the land or herding animals. They paid heavy taxes to landlords or tribal chiefs and often lacked services like schools or medical care. Cities were hubs of trade, religion, and administration. The Shi’a clergy held great social influence, and the rhythm of life was closely tied to religious observance and seasonal work.

The increasing presence of European powers like Britain and Russia, who dictated demands to the weak nation, did not make the situation any better. Iran could do nothing else except comply as foreigners sought control over Iran’s resources and local trade. Iran was famous for signing numerous one-sided treaties and concessions that flooded their market with foreign imports, washing away its traditional ones. These trade deals resulted in;

• British machine made textiles replacing traditional garments,
• The consumption of tea from India,
• Refined sugar from Russia and Europe nudging out dates and grape molasses as sweetener.
• Industrial made products increasing the separation in the quality of life between the wealthy and poor.

This collapse of traditional industries left only debt, inflation and corruption in its wake.

Railways, telegraphs, and newspapers begun to link the provinces to the capital. Urban populations grew, and a small educated middle class emerged.

The public rightly blamed the Qajar kings for selling out the country’s sovereignty. This was underscored during World War One, when though neutral, was occupied by British, Russian, and Ottoman forces, leading to famine, disorder, and the erosion of national authority.

The Qajars failed to implement reforms or to modernize Iran’s military, economy, or bureaucracy to unify or project national strength. Movements like the Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) displayed people’s desire for progress, but, the Qajar court resisted these changes.

Reza Khan, a military officer led a coup against the Qajars in 1921 and quickly gained power as a nationalist reformer. With support from parts of the army, political elite, and even some foreign actors, Reza Khan positioned himself as the strong leader Iran needed. In 1925, the Iranian parliament officially deposed Ahmad Shah Qajar and declared Reza Khan the new monarch, establishing the Pahlavi dynasty. As Reza Shah Pahlavi, he launched an ambitious program of modernization, state-building, and secularization.

One of Reza Shah’s top priorities was centralizing authority, weakening the power of local leaders, tribal chiefs, and the clergy. For many rural peasants and nomads, this meant being brought under government control for the first time. Tribal confederations were forcibly disarmed, and nomadic lifestyles were suppressed or forcibly settled. Taxes were strictly collected, and draft laws meant that many young men were now conscripted into the national army, sometimes for the first time in their family’s history.

Reza Shah pushed for urban development, building roads, railways, schools, courthouses, and hospitals. A civil bureaucracy began to emerge, and the government encouraged the creation of a middle class composed of civil servants, teachers, and professionals. The opportunity of new jobs, national pride, and improved public services was tempered by authoritarian control needed to implement the reforms. Political dissent was crushed, and independent newspapers, parties, and labor unions were shut down. The secret police also kept a close watch on public behavior.

Reza Shah curbed the power of the Shi’a clergy, secularized the legal system, and introduced Western-style dress codes—all of which were controversial among traditional communities. Many people were forced to abandon their traditional customs and clothing, including the hijab, in favor of Western influenced ones.

During World War II, Iran’s strategic location and oil resources made it a key interest for both Britain and the Soviet Union who were allied against Germany. Reza Shah declared Iran neutral, and he refused to cooperate with the Allies, especially when it came to allowing troop movements and supply routes through Iranian territory. His government also maintained close economic ties with Germany, with many of their nationals worked in Iran as advisors and technicians. The British and Soviets suspected these workers were Nazi agents and repeatedly demanded that Reza Shah expel them. He refused.

Of course, British and Soviet forces jointly invaded Iran on August 25, 1941. Soviet troops entered from the north, and British forces the south, targeting key oil installations and transportation routes. Iran’s military, poorly prepared and under strict orders not to resist too forcefully, was quickly overwhelmed. Within days, the Allies had taken control of major cities and infrastructure, effectively occupying the country.

Reza Shah was forced to abdicate on September 16, 1941, in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was more compliant. The Allies allowed the monarchy to continue but placed Iran under joint Anglo-Soviet occupation for the duration of the war. Reza Shah was sent into exile and died a few years later.

Although Iran was spared the destruction seen in Europe, the war brought occupation, inflation, famine, and political instability. With the war’s end in 1945, British and Soviet forces gradually withdrew and Iran regained formal control over its territory.

Yet, the nation’s problems remained. The economy was underdeveloped and largely agricultural, with the majority of people living in villages and small towns, working on land they did not own. Landowners and tribal elites still controlled vast estates, while peasants faced high taxes, low wages, and limited access to education or healthcare. In cities, overcrowding, unemployment, and poor sanitation were common, especially as rural migrants moved into urban areas looking for work.

Social and political awareness was growing, especially among the urban middle class and students. Many held nationalist ideas and demanded greater control over Iran’s natural resources, particularly oil, in the hands of the British-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company(AIOC). This frustration led to wide support for the nationalization movement, led by Mohammad Mossadegh, who argued that Iran’s wealth should benefit its people—not foreign powers.

In 1952, Mossadegh was elected Prime Minister, and he pushed through the nationalization of Iran's oil industry, severing ties with the British-controlled AIOC. The British government, was furious and put a trade embargo on the oil.

Oil had been 80-90% of its exports and made up half of all government revenue. Overnight, Iran could not sell to the same customers any longer, effectively halting its export. It could no longer support social programs, infrastructure projects or pay government employees. The Rial, lost value and people were priced out of the international market to buy goods. Supply of products dropped and inflation accelerated. Oil industries were shuttered, and employees terminated. Those who had catered to the industry had to significantly scale back their operations. Though initially Western-leaning, the embargo now isolated Iran from the West, and was hesitant to get too close to the Soviet Union as their economic contracts always had political strings attached. So, the nation sold its oil through secret deals and smuggling to mostly Soviet Bloc nations, and its isolation grew.

The United States, under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and the British government, led by Prime Minister Winston Churchill, claimed that Mossadegh’s policies could lead Iran into the Soviet sphere of influence. The CIA and British intelligence (MI6), with the support of both the Shah and conservative factions in Iran who were opposed to Mossadegh’s reforms, planned to create chaos in the country that would destabilize Mossadegh's government and provide the Shah with the justification to ask for his resignation.

The CIA, under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt Jr., employed a variety of methods, including propaganda campaigns, bribing politicians, and staging protests in an effort to paint Mossadegh as an unfit leader. US and British intelligence agencies also worked to create division within the military and government, planning to provoke an army revolt and stir public unrest, which would then force Mossadegh from power.

After weeks of orchestrated unrest and political maneuvering, the coup attempt was going no where. Mossadegh was aware of the growing conspiracy against him and on August 19, 1953, attempted to bolster his position by rallying support from the military and the public by having the police arrest some of the military officers aligned with the Shah. CIA operatives and agents loyal to the Shah staged a counter-coup, culminating in the military’s eventual support for the Shah.

With Mossadegh out, British and American influence over the Shaw ensured that nationalized oil fields and infrastructure would be handed back to Western control. A consortium of western companies managed and profited from the industry giving the Iranian’s a 25% cut of proceeds.

Mossadegh was arrested and taken into custody. He was tried for treason and sentenced to three years in prison, and placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life. The Shah, who had fled the country in fear of a potential uprising, returned to power with the backing of the US and Britain. The restoration of the Shah's absolute rule was marked by an increase in Western influence in Iran, particularly in the oil sector, and the establishment of a more authoritarian regime.

The United States provided loans and promises of military protection to prop up the regime in the aftermath of the coup. Unfortunately, the coup only deepened anti-Western sentiments in Iran. While the Shah remained in power until the 1979 revolution, his reign was characterized by increasing political repression, and widespread opposition. Iranian people did not appreciate that oil revenue mostly only benefited the royal family and the elite, nor attempts to Westernize their society. Religious leaders did not like attempts to marginalize their influence with this modernization.

By the late 1970’s, mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations erupted in cities across Iran. Protesters came from every walk of life, socialists, nationalists and religious groups. It was religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini that eventually managed to harness the population’s outrage. His call to return to Islamic values in the founding of an Islamic government resonated with the poor, young and religious, and his movement gained momentum.

On January 16, 1979 the Shaw fled the country for medical treatment. And on February 1, 1979 Ayatollah Khomeini, returned from exile to Iran to take control of the nation, founding the Islamic Republic with 98% support in a national referendum. The new government purged Shaw loyalists, closed Western institutions, and took control of the economies largest industries.

In modern Iranian history, it has always been the toy of larger powers. Despite radical changes, it is a country where authoritarian regimes, economic inequality, importance of culture, the fighting spirit, and nationalism have always remained and will likely to continue. I do not foresee an immediate end to its isolation. But if we look to the demands of its youth, we may see a glimmer of where the nation is headed.

In protests, Iranian youth took to the streets, risking government retaliation and even execution, to demand an end to compulsory hijab laws, believing in bodily autonomy and freedom from enforced dress codes. They protest against state violence and police brutality, especially after incidents like the tragic death of Mahsa Amini. They demand job opportunities, fair wages, and an end to corruption that enriches the elite while ordinary families struggle. Young protesters demand freedom of speech and assembly, rejecting censorship and the arrest of activists. Many chant slogans like “Woman, Life, Freedom” which at minimum suggest a desire for protections for women.

Perhaps a young student will tap into the voice of the people and inspire a new generation of Iranians to rise up and make Iran the country they all hold in their hearts.

Zaarin -- Founder n·h·g